Picture yourself in ancient Rome, where a single silver denarius was once enough to buy about 20 loaves of bread. As time passed, the government stealthily reduced the silver content in these coins, leaving only a feeble coating over ordinary base metal during the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 AD). On the surface, the coins appeared unchanged, but their true value plummeted. Suddenly, it took a small fortune in coins just to buy a single loaf of bread. This cunning deception unfolded during the Roman Empire’s third century AD and played a part in its dramatic downfall, as economic chaos fueled political upheaval.

Today, the US dollar is the world’s dominant currency, making up over 60% of global foreign exchange reserves (as of the fourth quarter of 2020, according to the IMF) and serving as the main medium for international trade, finance, and investment (being involved in 88% of all foreign exchange transactions in 2019, far ahead of the euro at 32% and yen at 17%, according to the Bank for International Settlements). This position grants the US economic and political advantages like lower borrowing costs, greater market access, and increased global influence.

However, the dollar’s dominance is not guaranteed. The US consistently spends more abroad than it earns from exports, creating a gap that must be covered by borrowing and printing more dollars. This can reduce the dollar’s attractiveness and value to other countries. For example, in 2021, the US current-account deficit — a measure of this gap — grew by 33.4% to $821.6 billion, the largest since the 2008 global financial crisis.

A consistent current account deficit has both advantages and disadvantages. On the plus side, it allows the US to maintain higher consumption and investment levels by importing goods and services at lower costs. This can boost the purchasing power and wealth of US consumers, providing access to a broader range of competitively-priced products. Also, a current account deficit often signals foreign investment interest in the US, which can create jobs and spur economic growth.

However, there are significant downsides to a constant current account deficit. Relying on foreign funds makes the US more susceptible to external shocks, such as sudden shifts in global financial markets. This dependence on foreign capital can result in a higher debt burden, leading to increased interest rates and inflationary pressures.

Furthermore, a continuous current account deficit can strain the dollar’s stability and trustworthiness as a store of value and unit of account. As the US prints more dollars to cover the deficit, it risks devaluing the currency and undermining global confidence in the dollar. This may eventually cause a decline in its status as the leading reserve currency, as other countries diversify their reserves to reduce risk.

Currency debasement and inflation can have severe consequences for an economy and society, such as eroding savings and investments, distorting market signals, increasing uncertainty, slowing economic growth, reducing productivity, and weakening social cohesion and trust. Additionally, it can undermine a nation’s political and military power, making it more susceptible to external threats and internal conflicts.

History shows that such scenarios have often accompanied the collapse or decline of empires. In this analysis, we will explore three historical examples: the Roman Empire in the third century CE, the Spanish Empire in the sixteenth century CE, and the French Empire in the eighteenth century CE. By comparing these empires’ experiences with the current US situation, we aim to draw lessons and insights for the future of the dollar and the international financial system. However, we also acknowledge that these cases are not simple or straightforward, and that there are many factors and contexts that need to be considered when analyzing the role of currency debasement and inflation in history.

The Roman Empire in the Third Century CE

The Roman Empire was an extraordinarily powerful and influential civilization that lasted for over a millennium. At its peak in the second century CE, it ruled about a quarter of the world’s population and GDP, leaving a lasting impact on legal, political, and cultural systems.

However, the third century CE brought various crises to the empire, including civil wars, invasions, plagues, famines, and natural disasters. To cope, Roman emperors debased their silver coins by adding base metals like copper, bronze, and lead, reducing the silver content from 90% to less than 1% by the century’s end.

The debasement of Roman currency had some positive effects, like financing public works and defense, stimulating trade, and fostering fiscal reforms. However, these benefits were overshadowed by negative consequences, such as inflation, distrust, and social decay. Currency debasement reduced real incomes and wealth for most people, particularly the middle class and poor, who faced rising prices and falling purchasing power. Trust in the government and its currency eroded, leading to hoarding or melting down silver coins for trade. Inflation distorted market signals and incentives, fueling social unrest and dissatisfaction. While not the sole cause, currency debasement significantly undermined the empire’s stability and prosperity.

The debasement and inflation of the Roman Empire’s currency played a significant role in its decline and eventual fall. It undermined the empire’s fiscal and military strength, resulting in difficulties funding public works, administration, and defense, while also diminishing loyalty and morale among soldiers. Furthermore, it fueled political instability and violence, eroding people’s trust in the government and its institutions.

The Roman Empire’s experience highlights critical lessons applicable to the US today. First, maintaining a stable and reliable currency requires prudent fiscal and monetary policies. Excessive money supply or dilution can have disastrous consequences, such as inflation and loss of confidence. Second, public trust in a currency is vital; when eroded, people may turn to alternative forms of money or payment systems that better safeguard their wealth and purchasing power. Lastly, currency debasement and inflation can diminish a nation’s global standing, undermining its role as a reserve currency or preferred medium of exchange for international trade and finance.

In light of these lessons, the US must prioritize responsible management of the dollar as the global reserve currency issuer. This includes exercising restraint when it comes to printing money or borrowing excessively to finance deficits and debts, as these actions can devalue the dollar and damage its credibility. The US should also focus on implementing sound and balanced fiscal and monetary policies that cater to both domestic and international objectives, ensuring long-term stability and growth.

The Spanish Empire in the Sixteenth Century CE

The Spanish Empire, one of history’s largest and most powerful empires, spanned five continents and lasted almost five centuries. As one of the first global empires, it connected Europe, Africa, America, Asia, and Oceania through trade, exploration, colonization, and conquest, leaving a rich and diverse cultural and religious legacy.

During the sixteenth century CE and beyond, the Spanish Empire faced numerous challenges such as wars, rebellions, corruption, and religious conflicts. To tackle these issues, Spanish emperors relied on various sources of income, including importing large amounts of gold and silver from their American colonies, particularly Mexico and Peru. These precious metals were mined by native populations, African slaves, mestizos, and creoles under harsh conditions. The Spanish treasure fleet transported gold and silver across the Atlantic Ocean to Spain and other destinations in Europe, Asia, and Africa.

The influx of gold and silver had several negative effects. First, it contributed to increased money supply in Europe, causing inflation and rising prices for goods and services. For example, wheat prices surged by over 400% between 1500 and 1650 CE. However, inflation’s impact varied across regions, sectors, and social groups. Second, Spain’s economy became less competitive and productive as it relied on colonial income, neglecting domestic industries and agriculture, leading to a trade deficit. Spain also faced challenges such as rigid institutions, political and religious conflicts, and lack of technological innovation. Third, the influx fueled wars and conflicts within Europe and the Spanish Empire. Spain used its wealth to finance military campaigns and support allies, encountering resistance and rivalry from other powers and some colonies.

The decline of the Spanish Empire in the 16th century offers important lessons for the US in managing its economy and global influence. First, the US should prioritize fostering a diverse and resilient economy by encouraging innovation and investment in various sectors, rather than relying heavily on a single source of income. This would prevent the neglect of domestic industries and help maintain competitiveness and productivity in the face of changing economic conditions. Additionally, the US should invest in research and development, education, and infrastructure to ensure long-term economic growth and prosperity.

Second, it is essential for the US to balance power and responsibility in its global engagements. The Spanish Empire’s aggressive use of wealth to finance military campaigns and support allies led to wars and conflicts. In contrast, the US should strive for a balanced approach, promoting diplomacy and cooperation alongside a strong defense. This includes engaging in international trade and fostering cooperation with other countries, while ensuring that its domestic industries remain competitive and adaptive. The US should also remain vigilant in monitoring economic trends and adjusting monetary and fiscal policies to maintain stability and growth.

Finally, the US must focus on investing in social and institutional development to prevent the challenges that contributed to the Spanish Empire’s decline. This includes promoting inclusiveness, social cohesion, and democratic values through social programs and institutional reforms. By learning from the Spanish Empire’s experiences, the US can work towards building a stronger, more sustainable, and globally engaged nation, better equipped to face the challenges of the 21st century and beyond.

The French Empire in the Eighteenth Century CE

The French empires, influential forces in history, spanned five continents over seven decades. The First French Empire (1804–1814/1815) under Napoleon I and II expanded through wars and alliances, while the Second French Empire (1852–1870) under Napoleon III pursued overseas interests. Both empires introduced cultural, intellectual, and artistic movements, as well as influential reforms like the Napoleonic Code, the metric system, and the civil service. However, they faced resistance from those who rejected their imperialism.

During the French Revolution, France faced challenges such as wars, revolutions, social inequalities, and fiscal mismanagement. To address these issues, the Constituent Assembly issued assignats, a form of paper money backed by land confiscated from the Catholic Church. Initially introduced as bonds with a 5% interest rate in December 1789, assignats were later converted into legal tender with a 3% interest rate in April 1790.

The introduction of assignats had several negative effects on France’s economy and society. First, it caused hyperinflation by expanding the money supply beyond the value of confiscated land backing it. Prices soared, and assignats’ value fell drastically. For example, bread prices increased over 10,000 times between 1789 and 1795 CE, with variations across regions and seasons.

Second, this eroded public trust in the government and its currency. People hoarded or traded assignats for more stable assets, demanding higher wages and prices to offset diminishing purchasing power. Government attempts to control prices and wages only fueled resistance and resentment.

Lastly, this weakened France’s economy and society. Hyperinflation reduced real incomes and wealth, especially for the middle class and the poor. It distorted market signals and incentives for production and trade, resulting in social unrest and dissatisfaction. The government faced blame for the economic turmoil, and counterfeiting of assignats by foreign enemies and domestic speculators further undermined France’s stability.

The issuance of assignats and the resulting hyperinflation played a significant role in the decline and fall of the French Revolution. These factors undermined the Revolution’s fiscal and monetary stability, making it more difficult to manage the budget and debt. They also weakened France’s economic and social structure, which was plagued by poverty, inequality, unemployment, and social unrest. Furthermore, they diminished the Revolution’s political and military power, as it faced internal conflicts and external threats. While the French Revolution’s experience offers important historical context, it is essential to examine how the US faces its own economic challenges in the twenty-first century.

Some of the challenges the US encounters have been exacerbated by events such as the 2008–2009 global financial crisis, the 2020–2021 COVID-19 pandemic, and the 2022 war in Ukraine. These disruptions have led to increased public debt and strained fiscal budgets, prompting unprecedented monetary stimulus from the Federal Reserve (Fed). Although the Fed’s actions have stabilized the economy and supported recovery, concerns have arisen over inflationary pressures and asset bubbles. In 2022, the Consumer Price Index (CPI) rose 6.5% over the year, marking the highest inflation level in the US since 1990, driven by factors such as rising energy and food prices and supply chain disruptions.

The US can learn lessons from France’s successes and failures. One lesson is that monetary expansion alone cannot solve structural problems like low productivity growth or income inequality. The US needs to complement its monetary policy with fiscal policy that supports public spending on infrastructure, education, healthcare, research and development, and social protection. Another lesson is the importance of balancing inflation objectives with growth objectives and clearly communicating policy strategy to maintain credibility. Lastly, the US should pursue reforms that enhance efficiency, competitiveness, innovation, and inclusion while minimizing disruptions and compensating those negatively affected.

Conclusion

The historical experiences of ancient empires like Rome, as well as the Spanish and French Empires, offer valuable insights into the potential pitfalls that the US must navigate to maintain its dominant position in the global economy. The consequences of debasing currency, overreliance on a single source of wealth, and excessive spending or borrowing can be severe, as demonstrated by these empires’ eventual declines.

To avoid a similar fate, the US must prioritize responsible management of the dollar as the global reserve currency issuer. This includes exercising restraint when it comes to printing money or borrowing excessively, adopting prudent fiscal policies that balance the budget, and investing in key sectors for a balanced and sustainable economy. Additionally, it is crucial for the US to focus on implementing sound and balanced fiscal and monetary policies that cater to both domestic and international objectives, ensuring long-term stability and growth.

However, recent developments suggest that the US may be at the brink of no longer being able to responsibly manage the dollar as the issuer of the global reserve currency. This precarious situation stems from high inflation levels, a soaring debt-to-GDP ratio, and persistent current account deficits.

Triffin’s Dilemma exacerbates the US’s predicament, as it must continue to run a current account deficit to supply the global economy with enough dollars, thereby worsening its long-term inflation prospects. Financing this deficit with debt leads to rising interest rates and, consequently, high debt servicing costs. To prevent these costs from depressing the US economy, the country may resort to printing more money — an unsustainable solution.

Furthermore, tensions with China and Russia over various issues, such as trade, human rights, cybersecurity, Taiwan, and Ukraine, may hinder the US’s adoption of an inclusive and multilateral approach. These conflicts could pose challenges for the US to cooperate with these countries on other matters of common interest or concern. Additionally, some economists have warned about the possibility of stagflation in the US economy due to factors such as supply shocks, labor shortages, and fiscal stimulus. The rise of AI could also have significant impacts on the economy, such as boosting productivity, displacing workers, and changing skills demand.

In conclusion, history underscores the potential repercussions of economic mismanagement. As the US faces a critical juncture, it’s essential to learn from the past and adapt to present challenges. By doing so, the nation can strive for long-term stability and growth, and minimize the impact of the pitfalls that led to the decline of once-great empires.